Makrolidlerin ve Linkozamidlerin Etki Spektrumu ve Kullanım Alanları
Özet
İlk olarak 1952’de Streptomyces erythreus’dan eritromisin elde edilmiştir. Yan etkisinin az olması, geniş antimikrobiyal spektrumu, yüksek doku ve serum düzeyleri ile önemini sürdürmektedir. Roksitromisin, klaritromisin, diritromisin, fluritromisin, azitromisin, spiramisin, fidaksomisin, josamisin, midekamisin, rokitamisin, miokamisin antibiyotikleri makrolid grubu içinde yer almaktadır. Makrolidler ve linkozamidler kimyasal yapıları birbirinden farklı ancak etki mekanizmaları, antimikrobiyal etki spektrumu, direnç mekanizmaları ve farmakolojik özellikleri birbirine benzeyen antibiyotik gruplarıdır. Yaklaşık olarak 40 yıl önce kullanıma giren linkozamidlerin linkomisin ve klindamisin olarak iki üyesi vardır. Makrolid ve linkozamidler antagonistik etki oluşabileceği için birlikte kullanılmamalıdır.
Referanslar
Dinos GP. The macrolide antibiotic renaissance. British journal of pharmacology. 2017;174(18): 2967-2983. doi: 10.1111/bph.13936
Mazzei T, Mini E, Novelli A, et al. Chemistry and mode of action of macrolides. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1993;31(suppl_C): 1-9. doi: 10.1093/jac/31.suppl_c.1
Janas A, Przybylski P. 14-and 15-membered lactone macrolides and their analogues and hybrids: Structure, molecular mechanism of action and biological activity. European journal of medicinal chemistry. 2019; 182:111662. doi: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111662
Patel PH, Hashmi MF. Macrolides. In: StatPearls [Internet]: StatPearls Publishing; 2021.
Kanoh S, Rubin BK. Mechanisms of action and clinical application of macrolides as immunomodulatory medications. Clinical microbiology reviews. 2010;23(3): 590-615. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00078-09
Cameron EJ, McSharry C, Chaudhuri R, et al. Long‐term macrolide treatment of chronic inflammatory airway diseases: risks, benefits and future developments. Clinical & Experimental Allergy. 2012;42(9): 1302-1312. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2012.03979.x
Tünger Ö. Makrolitler, Linkozamitler, Ketolitler. In: Willke Topcu A, Söyletir G, Doğanay M (eds). Enfeksiyon Hastalıkları ve Mikrobiyolojisi. İstanbul: Nobel Tıp Kitabevleri; 2017. p. 297-309.
Zuckerman JM, Qamar F, Bono BR. Review of macrolides (azithromycin, clarithromycin), ketolids (telithromycin) and glycylcyclines (tigecycline). Medical Clinics of North America. 2011;95(4): 761-791. doi: 10.1016/j.mcna.2011.03.012
Wierzbowski AK, Hoban DJ, Hisanaga T, et al. The use of macrolides in treatment of upper respiratory tract infections. Current infectious disease reports. 2005;7(3): 175-184. doi: 10.1007/s11908-005-0031-z
Kwiatkowska B, Maślińska M. Macrolide therapy in chronic inflammatory diseases. Mediators of inflammation. 2012: 636157. doi: 10.1155/2012/636157
Nesbitt WJ, Aronoff DM. Macrolides and Clindamycin. In: Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ (eds). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 9th ed. Elsevier; 2019. p. 359-374.
Firth A, Prathapan P. Azithromycin: the first broad-spectrum therapeutic. European journal of medicinal chemistry. 2020;207: 112739. doi:10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112739
Retsema J, Girard A, Schelkly W, et al. Spectrum and mode of action of azithromycin (CP-62,993), a new 15-membered-ring macrolide with improved potency against gram-negative organisms. Antimicrobial Agents and chemotherapy. 1987;31(12): 1939-1947. doi: 10.1128/AAC.31.12.1939
Gotfried MH. Appropriate Outpatient Macrolide Use in Community‐Acquired Pneumonia. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners. 2004;16(4): 146-156. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-7599.2004.tb00436.x
Zuckerman JM, Qamar F, Bono BR. Macrolides, ketolides, and glycylcyclines: azithromycin, clarithromycin, telithromycin, tigecycline. Infectious Disease Clinics. 2009;23(4): 997-1026. doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2009.06.013
Steel HC, Theron AJ, Cockeran R, et al. Pathogen-and host-directed anti-inflammatory activities of macrolide antibiotics. Mediators of inflammation. 2012;2012: 584262. doi:10.1155/2012/584262
Williams J. Non-antimicrobial activities of macrolides. International journal of antimicrobial agents. 2001;18 Suppl 1: 89-91. doi:10.1016/s0924-8579(01)00395-8
Fohner AE, Sparreboom A, Altman RB, et al. PharmGKB summary: macrolide antibiotic pathway, pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics. Pharmacogenetics and genomics. 2017;27(4): 164. doi: 10.1097/FPC.0000000000000270
Graziani AL. (2022). Azithromycin and clarithromycin. In: Hooper DC (Ed), UpToDate. (19.12.2022 tarihinde https://www.uptodate.com/contents/azithromycin-and-clarithromycin adresinden ulaşılmıştır).
Lenz KD, Klosterman KE, Mukundan H, et al. Macrolides: from toxins to therapeutics. Toxins. 2021;13(5): 347. doi: 10.3390/toxins13050347
Pechère JC, New perspectives on macrolide antibiotics. International journal of antimicrobial agents. 2001;18 Suppl 1: 93-97. doi:10.1016/s0924-8579(01)00393-4
Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. New England Journal of Medicine. 2011;364(5): 422-431. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0910812
Krone M, Lâm TT, Vogel U, et al. Susceptibility of invasive Neisseria meningitidis strains isolated in Germany to azithromycin, an alternative agent for post-exposure prophylaxis. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2020;75(4): 984-987. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkz535
Hansen GT, Metzler KL, DeCarolis E, et al. The macrolides. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs. 2002;11(2): 189-215. doi: 10.1517/13543784.11.2.189
Schwarz S, Shen J, Kadlec K, et al. Lincosamides, streptogramins, phenicols, and pleuromutilins: mode of action and mechanisms of resistance. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine. 2016;6(11): a027037. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a027037
Coyle EA, Cha R, Rybak MJ. Influences of linezolid, penicillin, and clindamycin, alone and in combination, on streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin a release. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2003;47(5): 1752-1755. doi: 10.1128/AAC.47.5.1752-1755.2003
Guay D, Update on clindamycin in the management of bacterial, fungal and protozoal infections. Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy. 2007;8(14): 2401-2444. doi: 10.1517/14656566.8.14.2401
Spížek J, Řezanka T. Lincosamides: Chemical structure, biosynthesis, mechanism of action, resistance, and applications. Biochemical pharmacology. 2017;133: 20-28. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2016.12.001
Kayaalp O. Makrolid, Linkozamid ve Streptogramin Antibiyotikler ve Linezolid. Rasyonel Tedavi Yönünden Tıbbi Farmakoloji. Ankara: Hacettepe-Taş Yayıncılık; 2005. p. 201-208.
Kasten MJ. Clindamycin, metronidazole, and chloramphenicol. Mayo Clinic proceedings. 1999;74(8): 825-833. doi:10.4065/74.8.825
Daily JP, Minuti A, Khan N. Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of malaria in the US: a review. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2022;328(5): 460-471. doi: 10.1001/jama.2022.12366
Dunay IR, Gajurel K, Dhakal R, et al. Treatment of toxoplasmosis: historical perspective, animal models, and current clinical practice. Clinical microbiology reviews. 2018;31(4): e00057-17. doi:10.1128/CMR.00057-17
Lee SM, Cho YK, Sung YM, et al. A case of pneumonia caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 2015;53(3): 321-327. doi: 10.3347/kjp.2015.53.3.321
